About 2,000 years ago, the eruption of Vesuvius destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum, burying both cities and victims in a searing mixture of molten rock, pumice, ash and gas. Because Roman cities were frozen in time, archaeologists know a lot about the lives of those who died, but what about the survivors?
In this excerpt from “Escape from Pompeii: The Great Eruption of Vesuvius and its Survivors(Oxford University Press, 2025), author Stephen L. Tuckprofessor of history at Miami University in Ohio, studies historical and archaeological evidence of people who escaped destruction Pompeii and Herculaneum, tracing their journey to the beginning of a new life beyond the shadow of the volcano.
This book begins with a simple question: did anyone survive the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD? This, of course, leads to many related questions: if anyone survived, who were they, where did they move, under what conditions, and how did they rebuild their lives in the aftermath of the eruption? Finally, what does this tell us about the Roman world and the functioning of its government, social networks and economy?
Unfortunately, there are no surviving eyewitness accounts of the eruption from Pompeii or Herculaneum. The closest we have are two letters from Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitus, which describe his experiences and experiences his uncle during the eruption. Notably, Pliny does record emotional reactions and actions in response to the eruption of Mount Misenum: the people in this community, which was about 28 miles (45 kilometers) west of the volcano by road, were clearly distressed but did not abandon their families during the crisis.
This behavior, obviously, was common to them with the behavior of the inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum. “You could hear the women screamingbabies crying and people screaming; some called their parents, others called their children or wives, trying to recognize them by their voices.”
There is a widespread belief that the eruption killed all the inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum. This is understandable given the representation of disaster in popular culture. […] In contrast, a reader of academic works on Pompeii and Herculaneum might reasonably believe that the question of survivors of the eruption of Vesuvius had already been resolved. […] In fact, the consensus among scientists is that, contrary to popular belief, a significant portion—perhaps even a majority—of the population of Herculaneum and Pompeii likely survived the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD.
“Evidence of Absence”
In both Pompeii and Herculaneum we can find much indirect evidence of the survival of the population, at least in the early stages of the eruption. Much of this has not been recognized for what it is, because it is evidence from absence. In particular, many of the common household items are not where we expect them to be, and modes of transport such as boats, horses and wagons are missing or, as far as we can tell, out of place.
It is not surprising that this evidence has not yet been studied in depth, given the hundreds of thousands of items, both intact and broken, found absolutely everywhere – inside and outside, in all types of buildings – at the two sites. Overall, however, the absence of certain items seems to indicate at least initial survival and plans to escape the cities.
The nature of the destruction, human remains, missing objects and transport animals in Herculaneum and Pompeii indicate that many residents of the two cities managed to escape. Other evidence for this assumption comes [from] the sequence of the eruption itself, as well as the date of the eruption and the location of the regional market outside the two cities on that date. Taken individually, none of this evidence proves an escape. However, taken together, they create a pattern that supports the conclusion that people made it out of the cities alive. […] Finding survivors also involves finding evidence of the relocation of these survivors.
Research for this book began with the hypothesis that some escapees might be identified, but they would only be a few extremely wealthy people who saw the eruption, handed over the keys to their home to an enslaved caretaker, and immediately fled the city in a direction away from the eruption. This does not appear to be the case. It turns out that those who escaped actually represented a significant portion of the population of their cities of origin.
Where did the survivors go?
We can say with certainty that many people from both Pompeii and Herculaneum escaped the eruption of Vesuvius, although more people escaped from the larger city of Pompeii. Among these people were rich and poor, men, women and children. We can say that at least 172 named individuals can be traced, probably representing about 3,000 household members.
How they managed to escape is more difficult to determine, but some appear to have lived on the outskirts of the affected cities, where escape was easier. Others may have been away from the cities on the day of the eruption, perhaps in the market at Puteoli. Most didn't get far: they relocated to coastal Campaniamainly along the coast from Naples north to Puteoli, Misenum and Cum. Smaller numbers live further on in Capua, Nola, Nuceria and Aquinum, while a larger group moved to Ostia.
Evidence suggests that they fled and resettled as families in communities that they likely chose themselves based on social or economic connections. The government did not resettle them, but the government nonetheless responded to the eruption by providing assistance to these communities. The Roman government did make a difference, but in terms of response and relief rather than rescue, despite the initial response Pliny the Elder and the Roman fleet at Misenum.
Perhaps individuals can be traced further – in modern parlance – to central Italy, Spain and Romania. Contemporary research on refugees and their movements, the impact on their new communities and the circumstances of their new lives can help us better understand the lives of these people who survived a horrific natural disaster and, in some cases, rebuilt their lives, integrated into their communities, but did not completely abandon their personal identity and culture while continuing to live.
Excerpt from Escape from Pompeii: The Great Eruption of Vesuvius and its Survivors Stephen L. Tuck. Copyright © Stephen L. Tuck, 2025, published by Oxford University Press on October 20, 2025. All rights reserved.
